Fast Food Nation Essay Example for Free

Fast Food Nation Essay Fast Food Is Linked to Obesity and Other Serious Health Problems Fast Food , 2009 Seth Stern is a staff writer at The Christian Science Monitor. Despite the fact that nutritional information about fast food is readily available, many fast food chains are taking the blame for the rise in obesity and other health problems across the nation. Some lawyers are considering the possibility that fast food chains could be held accountable for the health consequences of eating their food. The chains could also be responsible for the effects of their potentially misleading advertising, especially to children. These advertising messages can lead people to overeat, which is one of the reasons behind the obesity problem. For decades, Caesar Barber ate hamburgers four or five times a week at his favorite fast-food restaurants, visits that didnt end even after his first heart attack. But his appetite for fast food didnt stop Mr. Barber, who is 5 foot 10 and weighs 272 pounds, from suing four chains last month, claiming they contributed to his health problems by serving fatty foods. Legal Matters Even the most charitable legal experts give Barber little chance of succeeding. But his suit is just the latest sign that the Big Mac may eventually rival Big Tobacco as public health enemy No. 1 in the nations courts. Lawyers who successfully challenged cigarette manufacturers have joined with nutritionists to explore whether the producers of all those supersize fries and triple cheeseburgers can be held liable for Americas bulging waistlines. Prompted by reports that the nations obesity is getting worse, lawyers as well as nutrition, marketing, and industry economics experts will come together at a conference at Northeastern University in Boston to discuss possible legal strategies. Obesity can be linked to some 300,000 deaths and $117 billion in health care costs a year. Theyre looking at whether food industry marketing—particularly messages aimed at kids—may be misleading or downright deceptive under consumer protection laws, says Richard Daynard, a Northeastern law professor and chair of its Tobacco Products Liability Project. Theyll also consider the more complex question of whether the producers of fatty foods—and even the public schools that sell them—should be held responsible for the health consequences of eating them. A Toxic Food Environment Medical professionals argue that too much unhealthy food is sold by using tempting messages that encourage overeating. People are exposed to a toxic food environment, says Kelly Brownell of Yales Center for Eating and Weight Disorders. It really is an emergency. The figures are certainly startling. Obesity can be linked to some 300,000 deaths and $117 billion in health care costs a year, a report by the Surgeon General found [in 2001]. Such numbers prompted President [George W.] Bush to launch his own war on fat this summer [in 2002], calling on all Americans to get 30 minutes of physical activity each day. But fast-food industry representatives are quick to say, Dont just blame us. Steven Anderson, president of the National Restaurant Association, a trade group, says attorneys who attempt to compare the health risk of tobacco with those of fast food are following a tortuous and twisted logic. All of these foods will fit into [the] diet of most Americans with proper moderation and balance, he says. To be sure, there are big differences between tackling food and tobacco. Any amount of tobacco consumption is dangerous but everyone has to eat, Mr. Daynard says. And few if any foods are inherently toxic. Whats more, while there were only four or five tobacco manufacturers, there are thousands of food manufacturers and restaurants serving some 320,000 different products, says Marion Nestle, a professor of nutrition and food studies at New York University. People usually smoke one brand of cigarette. They eat in many restaurants and eat the same foods at home. That makes it almost impossible to prove that a persons obesity or health problems are caused by a particular food or restaurant. As a result, suits such as Barbers that attempt to pin the blame for weight-related problems on specific plaintiffs will run into difficulty in court, says Steven Sugarman, a law professor at the University of California, Berkeley. Suits by state attorneys general to try to recover the cost of treating obese patients, a tactic thats worked with tobacco, also could prove tough. Deceptive Advertising. Thats why lawyers are focusing on more modest suits aimed at advertising and marketing techniques, says John Banzhaf III, a George Washington University law professor who helped initiate the tobacco litigation three decades ago. For example, students in one of Professor Banzhafs courses helped sue McDonalds [in 2000] for advertising its french fries as vegetarian even though the company continued to use beef fat in their preparation. The company agreed to donate $10 million to Hindu and vegetarian groups as part of a settlement. But only in the past few months has Banzhaf considered similar suits as part of a concerted strategy to sue the food industry for false or deceptive advertising as a way of fighting Americans obesity. State consumer-protection laws require sellers to disclose clearly all important facts about their products. Just as a sweater manufacturer should disclose that it may shrink in the wash, Banzhaf says fast-food companies might have an obligation to disclose that a meal has more fat than the recommended daily allowance. Such class-action suits on behalf of people deceived by advertisements could recover the amounts customers spent on the food items but not money spent on related health costs. As with tobacco, marketing aimed at kids will be a particular focus of Banzhaf and his coalition of lawyers and nutritionists. Everybody is looking at children as the vulnerable point in this, says Dr. Nestle. She says shes received loads of e-mails and calls from plaintiff lawyers interested in advice since publishing Food Politics, a book critical of the food industrys marketing and its dominant role in shaping nutritional guidelines. While they know a quarter pounder is not a health food, a lot of people would be surprised to learn it uses up a whole day of calories for women. At a meeting in Boston [August 2002], Banzhaf said attorneys talked about suing Massachusetts school districts that sell fast food in their cafeterias or stock soda in their vending machines. These suits would be based on the legal notion that schools have a higher duty of care than restaurants. Fast-food restaurant chains, for their part, say theyre not hiding whats in their food. At Burger King, for example, nutritional information is supposed to be posted in every dining room. And on its website, Wendys lists 15 categories of information about its products, including total fat and calories for everything from the whole sandwich down to the pickles. Nutritionists say that the information doesnt put the calories in a context people can understand. While they know a quarter pounder is not a health food, a lot of people would be surprised to learn it uses up a whole day of calories for women, says Margo Wootan of the Center for Science in the Public Interest in Washington. Banzhaf acknowledges that litigation alone wont get Americans in better shape. Hed like nutritional information on the fast-food menu boards and wrappers or even health warnings similar to the ones now required on cigarettes. Still, Banzhaf says litigation will put producers of fatty foods on notice. When we first proposed smoker suits, people laughed too. Further Readings Books Paul Campos The Diet Myth: Why Americas Obsession with Weight Is Hazardous to Your Health. New York: Gotham, 2006. Autumn Libel Fats, Sugars, and Empty Calories: The Fast Food Habit. Philadelphia: Mason Crest, 2006. Gina Mallet Last Chance to Eat: The Fate of Taste in a Fast Food World. New York: Norton, 2004. J. Eric Oliver Fat Politics: The Real Story Behind Americas Obesity Epidemic. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. George Ritzer McDonaldization of Society 5. Los Angeles: Pine Forge, 2008. Eric Schlosser Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: HarperPerennial, 2005. Eric Schlosser and Charles Wilson Chew on This: Everything You Dont Want to Know About Fast Food. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. Michele Simon Appetite for Profit: How the Food Industry Undermines Our Health and How to Fight Back. New York: Nation Books, 2006. Andrew F. Smith Encyclopedia of Junk and Fast Food. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006. Morgan Spurlock Dont Eat This Book: Fast Food and the Supersizing of America. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 2005. Jennifer Parker Talwar Fast Food, Fast Track: Immigrants, Big Business, and the American Dream. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003. Tina Volpe The Fast Food Craze: Wreaking Havoc on Our Bodies and Our Animals. Kagel Canyon, CA: Canyon, 2005. Periodicals Frank Bruni Life in the Fast-Food Lane, New York Times, May 24, 2006. Steve Chapman Force-Fed the Facts, Reason, June 23, 2008. Temple Grandin Special Report: Maintenance of Good Animal Welfare in Beef Slaughter Plants by Use of Auditing Programs, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, February 1, 2005. Anne Kingston and Nicholas Kohler L. A. s Fast Food Drive-by: A City Councils Ban on Fast-Food Chains Is a Provocative Social Experiment, Macleans, August 25, 2008. Laura Kipnis Americas Waistline, Slate, October 28, 2005. www. slate. com.Amelia Levin Good Food Fast, Foodservice Equipment Supplies, October 1, 2006. Sarah More McCann Wanted: Inner-City Supermarkets, Christian Science Monitor, June 27, 2008. Ruth Mortimer Why Fast-Food Brands Should Not Change Their Recipe for Success, Marketing Week, August 28, 2008. Evelyn Nieves Fla. Tomato Pickers Still Reap Harvest of Shame,' Washington Post, February 28, 2005. Jennifer Ordonez Fast-Food Lovers, Unite! Newsweek, May 24, 2004. Jonathan Rosenblum Fast Food Nation Interview: Eric Schlosser on Obesity, Kids, and Fast-Food PR, PR Watch, November 17, 2006.www. prwatch. org. Gary Ruskin and Juliet Schor Junk Food Nation, Nation, August 29, 2005. William Saletan Junk-Food Jihad, Slate, April 15, 2006. www. slate. com. San Francisco Chronicle Battle of the Bulge: Fast Food Is King at Arroyo High, June 29, 2003. Morgan Spurlock The Truth About McDonalds and Children, Independent (London), May 22, 2005. Full Text: COPYRIGHT 2005 Gale, COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale. Source Citation Stern, Seth. Fast Food Is Linked to Obesity and Other Serious Health Problems. Fast Food. Ed. Tracy Brown Collins. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. At Issue. Rpt.from Fast-Food Restaurants Face Legal Grilling. The Christian Science Monitor. 2002. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. Document URL http://ic. galegroup. com. ezproxy. taftcollege. edu/ic/ovic/ViewpointsDetailsPage/Vi ewpointsDetailsWindow? failOverType=query=prodId=OVICwindowstate=n ormalcontentModules=mode=viewdisplayGroupName=Viewpointslimi ter=currPage=disableHighlighting=falsesource=sortBy=dis playGroups=action=ecatId=activityType=scanId=documentId =GALE%7CEJ3010311212userGroupName=taftcoll_mainjsid=3f16b8df6b867664f0 b4be12be1db146 Gale Document Number: GALE|EJ3010311212.

The Facts About Food Preservatives Essay -- Health, Food Preservatives

There is something that has been around for thousands of years, makes your trips to the grocery store cheaper and prevents people from dying of starvation every winter. This invention that helps us in many ways is food preservatives. Most people associate food preservatives with terrible chemicals that should be avoided, and while many that are used today have been known to cause health problems, there are many benefits that some people may not be aware of that food preservatives offer us. Before there were so many food preservatives, things were different in the traditional house. People didn’t have enough food in the winter because crops and meat that were unpreserved went bad. When people expected the food was about to go bad they would eat all of it so that nothing would be wasted. Also, as winter was approaching, many farmers would kill all of their animals because it was not economically wise to keep them through the winter. The animals would have to be fed and kept warm but grass wouldn’t be available for them to eat, water sources where they normally drink would be frozen over and they wouldn’t be producing as much food as they normally produce, such as milk or eggs. Also, animals that moved heavy farm equipment, like horses or oxen were not needed as much when there was no farming to do. People first figured out how to make food last longer a very long time ago. In as early as 1000 BCE, the Chinese had figured out how to use salt, spices and smoking. The Incas figured out how to freeze-dry things by around the 15th century. This helped them to always have 3-7 years of food available for their warriors. Nicolas Appert (pictured) was a French chef who figured out in January of 1810 how to store food in airtigh... ...urger-looks-almost-new/>. "Early methods of food preservation." Early methods of food preservation. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. . "Food Additives." Food Additives. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. . French, Alicia. "The top 10 scariest food facts." Food Recipes RSS. N.p., 21 Oct. 2011. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. . "Middle Ages Food Preservation." Middle Ages Food Preservation. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. . Pancholi, Rahul. "Join Academia.edu & Share your research with the world." Food preservatives. N.p., 12 Apr. 2012. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. .

Dramatic and Significant in Act 2 Scene 3 Macbeth

Title: How does Shakespeare make this scene both a significant and dramatic moment in the play? In Shakespeare’s play Macbeth there are a lot of dramatic, exciting and tragic occurrences in many of the scenes. Although in the beginning, Shakespeare foreshadowed the tragedies that were to come nothing could have prepared the audience for what took place in Act 2 scene 3. This is the scene in which King Duncan is found murdered causing shock and panic in all the characters on stage.He dramatizes the scene by portraying the discovery of the King’s body, by emphasizing the shock and disbelief of the characters, by the flattering description given of Duncan and by revealing to the audience the deceptive characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Duncan is the King of Scotland. He went to Macbeth’s castle to commend Macbeth in his bravery in the war against Scotland. However what he did not know was that his death was planned before his arrival.Although we the audience on ly meet Duncan briefly Shakespeare provides us with an admirable view of Duncan’s character by the way the other characters describe him. For example when Duncan was found murdered Macduff had expressed his disbelief and outrage with the words: â€Å"Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope/The Lord’s anointed temple, and stole thence/The life o' th' building! † In this quote Shakespeare is comparing Duncan to God’s Temple. This gives the audience an idea of how kind and just Duncan really was.Even Macbeth calls the king â€Å"graceful and renowned† although the audience is not quite sure whether he meant it or not. Macbeth refers to the king’s blood as â€Å"the wine of life† and his body as â€Å"the dregs that remain. † In other words Duncan’s virtuous character was in his blood and now that it has been shed only the shell remained. Macduff was the one who discovered Duncan's corpse. He was very much frightened and sho cked to find his master dead. He had arrived on Duncan's orders to wake him up early only to find the king murdered.He comes out of the king’s chamber traumatized saying â€Å"O horror, horror, horror! /Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee! † To him this is unbelievable. Shakespeare depicts the shocked tone through Macduff’s words â€Å"O horror, horror, horror! † and through the exclamation marks to represent the tone of surprise in which Macduff spoke. There was a lot of commotion after that. Macduff awoken everyone by yelling and by ringing the bell to which Lady Macbeth responds â€Å"What’s the business, /that such a hideous trumpet calls to parley/The sleepers of the house?Speak, speak! † Lady Macbeth demands to know for what reason Macduff rung the bell awakening everyone that was sleeping. As everyone clambers in the tension and disbelief of the other characters start to build up emphasizing the drama of this scene. The aud ience is well aware that Macbeth was the one that killed the King and that Lady Macbeth helped him to accomplish the mission. So when they pretend they don’t know what happened it brings out one of the major themes of this play, deception. This scene reveals the duplicitous characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.Shakespeare portrays Macbeth as a person with a conscience but not a moral one. Macbeth wants to be king but he would rather have someone else do the evil deed and take the fall while he becomes king. He nevertheless kills the king and feigns disbelief when the body is found. He also killed the two innocent guards who were framed for the murder calling it an act passionate fury. Although the characters onstage are yet to find out that Macbeth is deceitful the audience waits tensely for the moment in which all is revealed.Lady Macbeth is also shown as a duplicitous character here in this scene. She is well aware of what took place since it was her master plan but prete nds to be innocent when Duncan's body is found. The irony in this scene is when Macduff trying to protect the Lady tells her â€Å"O gentle lady, /'Tis not for you to hear what I can speak: The repetition, in a woman’s ear, would murder as it fell† little does he know how ironic his choice of the word â€Å"gentle† is. He tells her that if he repeats the news to her she would die because of the tragedy.However Lady Macbeth is not shocked at the news although she feigns it since she herself kept awake to see that the deed was done. Lady Macbeth earlier on the play retorts to Macbeth that she herself would have done it if she wasn’t born a woman; she originally cursed her ‘gentleness’ begging nature to take the gift of giving life away from her. She even advises Macbeth on how to be deceitful when she said â€Å"To beguile the time, Look like the time. Bear welcome in your eye, your hand, your tongue. Look like th' innocent flower, But be the serpent under ’t. this shows that she is the more experienced one in being deceitful which is ironic since it’s Macbeth that is the ‘brave and worthy’ kinsmen. Shakespeare shows her to be a cruel woman who would stop at nothing for her husband’s success. This scene is a very dramatic one leaving most of the audience on their toes in anticipation and suspense dying to know what was going to happen. Later on we discover that Malcolm the crown Prince runs away leaving the throne. This is when the audience fully realizes that the Witches were telling the truth and that their final prophecy came true. Macbeth became King of Scotland.

Ethical Issues Essay - 1300 Words

Phase 2 Individual Project INTD670-1303A-01 Scenario Joe Smith a sales representative is one of Tom Tramlins top people in sales for UWEAR and PALEDENIM. Bill Bateman the CEO of the Peninsula Hotel chains met with Joe through Tom through the last contract and is meeting with him again to discuss the renewal of the contract for supplying uniforms for their employees at the hotel. Joe has become good friends with Bill and his wife and have received many perks since the last signing of the contract, like being invited to go on their yacht, social events, and staying at the hotel which is very beautiful and has an excellent swimming pool with a waterfall that the kids absolutely love. Joe landed the last contract by pricing the uniforms†¦show more content†¦Since the policy at UWEAR states, that it is unethical to have contact or discuss business with a client that the management team does not approve of. Since this got Joe in trouble last time with management by pricing uniforms lower to win the contract, he should be ca utious of his decision. Discuss with Bill your thoughts and tell him you will get back with him as soon as you can, or you could just explain to Bill, that there can be no discussion of the contract they are working on and it only is a family fun day out on the yacht between friends. Joe should analyze the businesses code of ethics, make the decision, and realize what effects his decision will have on all stakeholders, and anyone that will be affected. How will the decision you make affect stakeholders if the decision you make turns out the way you plan? How will it affect everyone involved if your decision to go with Bill does not go as planned and backfires? Ethical Theory of Joes response to Bill Joe has a duty and this duty is to be responsible and has an obligation to UWEAR, its employee’s, and his family. The theory of deontological is a moral system that focuses on moral duties and rules. By knowing, what our moral duties are and what rules exist, to regulate those duties will help with a decision to go with Bill on the yacht without telling management, or discuss the matter with management and reassure them that is not business related. IfShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical Issues On Civil Journalism2970 Words   |  12 Pagesmodels and the exponential increase in â€Å"publishing† capabilities, there is an urgent need to identify news sources that are genuinely journalistic.’ (Meyers, Wyatt, Borden, Wasserman.) What I wish to bring out and elaborate in this paper are the ethical issues on how civil journalism, despite the acceptance and cooperation with professional journalism, is differentiated from its professional and vetted track. 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Redemption through Retrospect - 910 Words

Redemption Through Retrospect Patti Smith, a renowned American singer and songwriter, once said, â€Å"The idea of redemption is always good news, even if it means sacrifice or some difficult times.† In one’s lifetime, it is inevitable that one will face personal battles and experience feelings of guilt. One is able to find one’s peace of mind by redeeming oneself, by doing something that ultimately makes up for the cause of guilt. In the novel The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini, the story revolves around the two themes of betrayal and redemption. Ultimately, Hosseini exploits Amir’s odyssey to reveal the drastic transformation his character goes through from the moment he witnesses his best friend get raped to the day he runs a kite for his nephew Sohrab, repeating the same phrase Hassan said to him several years earlier. The storyline of The Kite Runner truly reveals how a flawed character can find redemption. 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As Gareth Leaney stated, â€Å"God’s plan of redemption is not judgment, but the eternity beyond it.† A man named John wrote the book of Revelation on an island in the Argean Sea named Patmos. Domitian banished John to the isle of Patmos because of the Christian stand. This person is believedRead More Victor Hugos Les Miserables and Jean Valjean Essay examples2852 Words   |  12 Pagespersonal and communal destinies. As we progress through the pages, we witness the transformation of our outlaw protagonist and his persistent strivings, to overcome his despair and egotism. The reader will feel from Vaijeans adventures, that the moral character can and does grow, no matter how his previous devastating experiences had hardened him. Since Valjean is the unifying centre of the action in the novel, his moral and spiritual growth through his interaction with characters in Les MiserablesRead More Reflecting on Religion in Literature1925 Words   |  8 Pagesconvoluted religion is we changed our mind. In an attempt to synthesize the work done this semester, I wish to form some sort of definition of religion base on the ethnographies we have studied. In order to create such a definition, I wish to go through the three major books that we read and make a conclusion as to the authors’ understanding of religion. In other words, in my own words, a conclusion on each authors’ take on religion. Afterwards, I wish to use all three to form an overall definition

Things Fall Apart By Chinua Achebe - 969 Words

Joziah Dietrich Hour 4 Jonas 12/8/2015 My Way or No Way An intelligent motivational speaker, Peter Senge, once said People don t resist change. They resist being changed! As we go on in life, we come across two types of individuals, ones who see the chance to better themselves by making important changes, and ones who think there is no need for change due to the belief that everything about them is perfect. In the two books, Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and The Tao of Pooh by Benjamin Hoff, the characters Okonkwo, Nwoye, and Pooh all illustrate the effects of accepting and or resisting change. In Chinua Achebe’s, Things Fall Apart, the character Okonkwo shows the negative outcome of resisting change. Due to a rough†¦show more content†¦Okonkwo continued to reject the ways of his father to the point where his â€Å"whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and of weakness† (16). Okonkwo’s fear is what drove him to stay away from change and establish the ultimate goal of showing no resemb lance of his failure of a father. He showed great success by completing the goal and proving to the community that he was an entirely different individual. Although, his success quickly ended when he became close-minded when things didn t go the ways he wanted them to, leading to the downfall of his community. After the return from his 7 year exile, Okonkwo learned the missionaries changed all the people of his home town. â€Å"The clan had undergone such a profound change†(182) that they were barely recognizable, and as a result â€Å"he mourned for his clan†(183) because they had changed so much to the point where they seemed to be â€Å"soft women†(183). Okonkwo could not cope with such a drastic change, for change is what he was trying to stay away from. He had become a disgrace to his community, just like his father, who he refused to be like. By resisting change, Okonkwo lost the respect of his own father and the community that he thought were his people. The fear of change imposed great stress on himself over time, which lead to a breaking point and the taking of his own life. The refusal to change in little ways and accept different ideas is

From the Function of Music to Music Preference free essay sample

To date, not much is known about how the functions of music relate to music preference. This article examines the basic hypothesis that the strength of preference for a given kind of music depends on the degree to which that kind of music serves the needs of the listener; that is, how well the respective functions of music are fulfilled. Study 1, a pilot study, identified the best- known musical styles of the participants, yielding 25 styles that were known by at least 10 percent of them. Study 2 used these 25 styles and found that rock, pop and classical music were liked most.A factor analysis yielded six extinct dimensions of music preference. People showed great variation in the strength of preference for their favorite music. This is explained by the impact of different functions of music. The potential of music to express peoples identity and values and to bring them together was most closely related to the strength of preference. However, the reasons for liking a particular style are not congruent with the functions that people ascribe to their favorite music in general. A theoretical model of the development of music preferences is suggested. Unrest, musical taste, styles, uses and gratification approach KEYWORDS: Knowing more about music preference is essential for the music culture, for the society, [and] for the personal development of the individual (Finns, 1989, p. 43). The investigation of music preference consists of two central questions. First, why does one person like a certain type of music (e. G. , classical music) while another prefers a totally different type of music? And, second, why do people differ in their degree or strength of music preference, which can vary considerably?Good answers to both questions are necessary for building a sound theoretical model of the origin and development of USIA preferences. However, to date, the second question has received little attention. Let us first look at how preferences for a given type of music can be shaped. In his review of the literature on the topic, Finns (1989) concluded that there are several causal factors that can have an impact on music preference: specific characteristics of the music (tempo, rhythm, pitch, etc. ), familiarity and repeated listening, the listeners affective experiences while listening to music and social influences. Other researchers have provided further evidence for the impact of social influences (Adler, 1985; Slaking, Odds, Watts, 2006) and affective experiences (e. G. , Blood Equator, sampler 280 psychology of MusiC 37(3) 2001; Gibberellins, 2001; Guilin Alaska, 2004; Guilin Caseload, 2001) on music preference. And still others have found additional factors that can influence music preference: the personality of the listener (Reenters Gosling, 2003, 2006), the listeners physiological parameters (Mascara Ballard, 1999) and innate auditory preferences (McDermott Hauser, 2005; Tether, Challengers, Hill, 1997; Motto, 1997).And not least, the age of a listener seems to have a strong impact on music preference (Holbrook Schneider, 1989; Mender 1991). This list factors gives an idea how music preferences can be influenced, but the question remains why people actually listen to music and why they develop a special musical taste. If one looks at the research that has addressed the latter qu estion, the most general answers refer to the functions of music, which means that people use music to reach certain goals and serve their needs (e. G. Earnest, 1995; Back, 1993; Hexane, 1995; Larson, 1995; North Harvested, 1999; Caseload, ONeill, Vivaldi, 2001; George, Grant, George Gephardt, 2006). We will first discuss Hess research findings on the functions of music and then argue that the relationship between the functions of music and music preference especially the degree of preference still needs further investigation. Then we present the results of two studies. The first serves as a pilot study that provides the means to examine the relationship between functions of music and the strength of preference for different kinds of music in the second study.Finally, we discuss how the results obtained in the present studies might help to build a theoretical framework on the relationship of musical functions and music preference. Functions and benefits of music There is much evidence that the reasons why we prefer one type of music over another, or even like music at all, can be ascribed to the functions of music (Earnest, 1995; gene, 1 986, 1997; Guilin chukka, 2004 Larson, 1995; Lewis, 1992; Sartorially Erik, 2007; Schwartz gouts, 2003; Caseload et al. , 2001). Our daily lives are thought to be driven by certain needs that lead us to a state of subjective well-being or hedonism (see, e. . , Rises, 2004), and music is just one thing that brings us a bit closer to this end every day. We use music to serve several functions that are important to us. Most of the functions are related to developmental issues, especially for adolescents. Young people use music to explore, express and tighten their identities (Earnest, 1995; Larson, 1995; North Harvested, 1 999) and to communicate their personal values, ambitions, beliefs, and perceptions of the world and themselves (North Harvested, 1999; Steele Brown, 1 995; White, 1985). Through music people can try on different personalities or identities, including desirable ones as well as ones they fear (Larson, 1995; Markus Nurses, 1986). In this context, music is also used to establish a symbolic border against other groups (or against parents in early adolescence) to define a (youth) culture of its own (Back, 1 993; Rill, 2006). Music can enhance interactions with peers or with a partner, by providing either a medium for communication and common activities (e. G. , Denies, 1 992; Lull, 1992) or information about the other through his or her favorite music (Reenters Gosling, 2006).Reenters and Gosling (2003, 2006) found that listening to music is the top leisure-time activity for most people and they suggested that music is highly Downloaded from pomp. Seepage. Com at Universities Ethnology Mar (CCITT) on March 23, 201 1 Schafer and Sideliner: From the functions of music to music preference 281 diagnostic for exploring the personality of others. Further, music is used to tune out and to cope with daily hassles and problems (Earnest, 1 995; Larson, 1995; Schwartz Pouts, 2003; Taxman Hortatory, 2002).In a broader sense, we use music to manage and regulate our moods and emotions, to chill and relax, and to reminisce (George et al. , 2006; Guilin Alaska, 2001; Sartorially Erik, 2007; Ashrams Worth, 2006; Waterman, 1 996; Gilligan, 1988). People also use music to manage their arousal level or to satisfy their negation seeking (Earnest, 1992; Gnawing Mirror, 1999; Mascara Ballard, 1999), and music leads to physical activity through dancing. Functions of music and music preference Most of the studies that have investigated functions of music have used preferred or favorite music without considering the degree of preference.However, this pr ocedure makes it difficult to study the impact of functions of music on music preference: Why there is a continuum between just liking music and adoring music and whether and how this degree of preference is related to the functions of music has, to the best of our knowledge, not yet been addressed. In most of the research reported above, the assumption was made that the functions of music are directly related to preference, meaning that the more intensely music can be used to serve certain functions, the more intense the preference.However, this is not compelling, because music can be used in several ways, but not all of them appropriate for every listener. That is, someone might be aware of various functions his or her favorite music can serve, but this need not be the main reason for liking this music best. Thus, we have to look for the missing link between the functions of music and the degree Of music preference. A theoretical basis for investigating this relationship is provided by Been (1997, p. 49), who suggested that this relationship is linear that the intensity of music preferences seems to be a mirror of the intensity of Immensurable, defined as the sum of psychic processes which accompany the experience of music in situations when music is in the focus of interest (Been, 1997, p. 143). Following Been (1 997), we hypothesized that the strength of music preference should cavalry with the intensity of music use: the better the needs of a listener are served by a given music, the higher the degree of preference for that music should be.Rationale of present studies Our first step was to search for commonly known musical styles. Respondents were asked to list all musical styles known to them. This was done to obtain an overview of known styles to use instead of a ready-made list of styles collected by experts or a researcher, as has often been done. The best-known styles were then identified (Study 1). The next step (Study 2) was to determine if these styles could be grouped into a few dimensions of music preference to possibly confirm the results of previous research and to have a starting point for investigating the functions of music.Dimensions (factors) of musical styles (e. G. , rock, pop, rap, electro) refer to specific styles of music that are similarly rated or liked (e. G. , Bog, Racketeer, Volleyball, Well, Sickens, 2003; Burger, Gladiola, Lester, 2002; Christenson Peterson, Downloaded from pomp. Seepage. Com at Universities Ethnology Mar (Tim) on March 23, 282 Psychology of Music 37(3) 1988; Taxman Hortatory, 2002). In research, they are primarily used to reduce the number of different styles, especially to learn something about the perception of music and its impact on human behavior, emotion and cognition. For example, the genre rap might contain musical styles such as hip hop, black music, R n B, and rap. In a series of excellent studies, Reenters and Gosling (2003) showed that preferences can be grouped into only four dimensions that reflect the central characteristics of the music described: (1 ) reflective and complex (e. G. , classical); (2) intense and rebellious (e. G. , rock); (3) upbeat and conventional (e. G. , pop); and (4) energetic and rhythmic (e. G. , rap).Then we searched for the functions people ascribe to their favorite music and the relationship between these functions and their degree of preference, o learn something about what it is that makes them passionate listeners. The functions with the greatest influence on preference were identified via stepwise regression analysis. The functions used in Study 2 were derived from previous research on functions of music and were intended to cover all categories of functions music can have (except therapeutic).Preference for favorite music was investigated using questions concerning judgment as well as behavioral dimensions of preference in order to observe it in a more valid way, rather than a single scale of liking from not at all to very much. Study 1: how well known are different musical styles? Study 1 was conducted as a pilot study that investigated how well known different musical styles are, to provide the musical styles to be used in Study 2. METHOD In a questionnaire survey, 170 participants (100 female, 70 male) were asked to list, on paper, all the musical styles they knew.Participants were 15 to 78 years old (M 26. 4; SD 12. 2). Most (67. 1 were students at Chemist University of Technology in Germany (mainly in the social sciences, I. E. , psychology, sociology, pedagogy); 24. 7 percent were employed in various professions, and 8. Percent were sleepyhead or unemployed. Although we intended to have a balanced ratio of males and females, we received more answers from females, which is probably because social science students in Germany are predominantly female. Participants received no compensation for their participation.In addition to listing the musical styles they knew, participants estimated the mean time they spent listening to music every day and rated their musicality (scale from 1, very unmusical, to 10, very musical) as well as the importance of music in their life (scale from 1, not at all important, to 10, very important). R USE L T SAND IS CUE S S I ON There were 74 different musical styles, each known to at least one participant. To narrow the field for further investigation, styles were selected that were known by at least 10 percent of all respondents, which resulted in 25 styles (see Table 1).Respondents mean rating for self-estimated musicality was 6. 1 (SD 2. 4), and the mean rating for importance of music in their life was 8. 2 (SD 1. 8). Thus, participants rated their own musicality as moderate, yet music seems to play a very important role in their life. This is emphasized by the reported time they spent listening to Downloaded from pomp. Seepage. Com at Universities Ethnology Mar (Tim) on March 23, 2011 Schafer and Sideliner: From the functions of music to music preference 283 music per day, which was about three hours (M 2. 9; SD 1 . ). The duration of music listening was slightly negatively correlated with age (r . 15; with a sample size Of n 170, and a one-tailed Of 5 percent, correlations are significant if r . 13) but more and positively with musicality (r . 24) and importance of music (r . 29). As suggested by previous findings (Mended, 1 991), importance of music decreased with age (r . 24). This is further supported by a negative relation between age and the number of styles mentioned (r . 30). Musicality was moderately correlated with importance of music (r . 39).To reveal possible effects of gender, we used t-tests to compare the mean values for musicality, importance of music and amount of time of music listening per day of males and females. Despite the relatively high power because of the large samples, none of the tests were significant. The same holds for comparisons of the Fisher z-transformed correlations (e. G. , Rosenthal Orison, 1991, p. 495) calculated separately for males and females. Thus, gender effects were negligible in our study. The list of best-known musical styles was used as a starting point for Study 2. It provides a valid representation of styles familiar to the respondents.In Study 2, a larger sample was investigated; this is why Study 1 covered no further questions. TABLE 1 How well known are different musical styles? Musical style Pop Classical Rock Jazz Folk Hip hop Techno Metal Blues Punk Beat-music Reggae R n B Soul House Rock n roll Country Rap Swing Gospel Ask Alternative Dance Gothic Trance Note: N 170. Frequency of mention 134 128 125 114 102 100 100 74 67 67 64 58 56 54 46 4039 38 30 29 29 24 24 22 19 recent of participants 78. 8 75. 3 73. 5 67. 1 60. 0 58. 8 58. 8 43. 5 39. 4 394 37. 6 34. 1 32. 9 27. 1 23. 5 22. 9 22. 4 17. 6 17. 1 17. 1 14. 1 14. 1 12. 9 11. 284 Study 2: the functions of music and music preference The purposes of Study 2 were to investigate (1 ) the distribution of preference for the musical styles from Study 1 to analyses the specific degree to which people like their favorite music; (2) the structure of these preferences, to find main dimensions by factor analysis, first to check whether dimensions (factors) from recent research can be confirmed, and second to use these mentions as musical genres to analyses further results in detail for each genre; (3) which functions peoples favorite music can have; and (4) how these functions are related to the specific degree of peoples music preferences. METHOD Participants In this study, 507 participants from several German cities responded to an online survey via the internet. They were 11 to 50 years old (M 24. 8; SD 5. 1); 71 percent were female, 29 percent male. Most (79. 5%) were students of various disciplines (mainly in the social sciences, I. E. Psychology, sociology, pedagogy), 15. 6 percent were employed in various professions, and . 9 percent were self-employed or unemployed. Thus, the respondents in this sample were somewhat younger than those in Study 1 and there were more students. Again, participants received no compensation for taking part in the study. As in Study 1 respondents had to provide information about their musicality and the importance of music. The results were consistent with Study 1 for self-estimated musicality (M 5. 7; SD 2. 4), the importance of music in their life (M 7. 7; SD 1. 5), and the mean duration of listening to music per day (M 3. 1 hours; SD 2. 5).Again, the duration of music listening was slightly actively correlated with age (r . 14) but more ? and positively ? with the importance of music (r . 33). However, it was not correlated with musicality (r . 07). Importance of music did not decrease with age (r . 08), which is a clear difference from Study 1 and probably because of the younger sample in Study 2. Musicality was moderately correlated with importance of music (r . 41). As in Study 1 to reveal possible gender effects we ran t-tests for musicality, importance of music and amount of time of music listening per day, and we compared all correlation coefficients between males and females. None of these differences were significant.Thus, again, gender effects were negligible. Material and procedure The questionnaire was provided via the internet and completed online. All materials were originally in German. The link to the website was distributed via email to mailing lists Of German universities, and all respondents were encouraged to forward this link to their friends and relatives. First, participants were asked to give preference ratings for each of the 25 musical styles from Study 1. This was done on ID-point Liker scales with the poles (0-9) labeled l dont like it at all and l like it very much. Then the respondents were asked to name their favorite music (not restricted to the 25 given styles).To provide information about music preference, including attitudes as well as behavioral dimensions, they were asked to rate how much they agreed with the following statements: (1) l like this music, (2) I couldnt live without this music, (3) l regularly visit clubs or concerts to listen to this muse, (4) l just need this music, (5) Im a passionate Downloaded from pomp. Seepage. Com at Universities Ethnology Mar (Tim) on 285 listener of this music, (6) l usually spend a lot of money to purchase this music. This was done on 1 a-point Liker scales with the poles labeled do not agree at all and completely agree. Following this, respondents were asked to think of their favorite music and rate how much they agreed with several statements about it (the functions of music as found in the literature, see Table 2).Again, 1 a-point Liker scales were used with the poles labeled not agree at all and completely agree. Participants then had the opportunity to name additional functions of their favorite music that were not on the list. Rest Its and discussion The structure of music preferences The 25 best-known musical styles were dated for preference. Despite the limitations (the somewhat younger sample and the missing correlation between the importance of music and age in Study 2), the overall correspondence between the two samples seemed to be high enough to use the 25 best-known musical styles from Study 1 in Study 2. Figure 1 shows the rank-ordered mean preference ratings.The most favored styles were rock and alternative, followed by classical, pop, rock n roll, jazz, punk, reggae, blues and ask. Styles that were judged rather negatively were beat music, folk and the various kinds of electronic music. This reflects and extends previous findings about the popularity of musical styles, namely, that rock, classical and pop music are very popular styles (e. G. , Been, 1986; Mended, 1991) but that folk music does not play as important a role for Germans as it does, for example, for Turkish people (Taxman Hortatory, 2002). Previous research has repeatedly revealed a structure of music preferences, meaning that certain musical styles are perceived or rated similarly.